Ancient History

Gandarw is a dragon that Garshasp, the legendary Iranian paladin, killed him beside the Farakhkart sea. He appears as a dragon in the Avesta and Pahlavi books but he is viewed as a human being in the books of the Islamic period. Gandarw possesses divine attributes and is deemed to be a demigod in the Indian mythological traditions. As yet, there has not been any significant work to adequately address the relationship between both the human and supernatural aspects of the dragon and also the relationship between Gandarw and the Indic Gandharva. The present research is an attempt to study Gandarw as an aquatic creature and to relate its human aspect with water. It also intends to examine its role as a totem for ancient peoples in the Indo-European civilization.

The ruins of San Bartolo, Guatemala, contain a sample of Maya hieroglyphic writing dating to the Late Preclassic period (400 B.C. to 200 A.D.). The writing appears on preserved painted walls and plaster fragments buried within the pyramidal structure known as “Las Pinturas,” which was constructed in discrete phases over several centuries. Samples of carbonized wood that are closely associated with the writing have calibrated radiocarbon dates of 200 to 300 B.C. This early Maya writing implies that a developed Maya writing system was in use centuries earlier than previously thought, approximating a time when we see the earliest scripts elsewhere in Mesoamerica.

Num dos capítulos da sua monumental obra Monarchia Lusytana, em que dá conta da campanha do procônsul romano Décimo Júnio Bruto para submeter os povos do Ocidente peninsular, frei Bernardo de Brito mostra que uma batalha travada perto do rio Távora (onde há, de facto, muitos vestígios romanos) não teve vitória fácil. E para o demonstrar, salientando a bravura dos “Portugueses”, inventou os epitáfios de dois importantes membros das tropas romanas: um signifer e um eques. É o epitáfio deste último que se analisa do ponto de vista epigráfico e literário.

Despite the localisation of the southern Caucasus at the outskirt of the Fertile Crescent, the Neolithisation process started there only at the beginning of the sixth millennium with the Shomutepe-Shulaveri culture of yet unclear origins. We present here genomic data for three new individuals from Mentesh Tepe in Azerbaijan, dating back to the beginnings of the Shomutepe-Shulaveri culture. We evidence that two juveniles, buried embracing each other, were brothers. We show that the Mentesh Tepe Neolithic population is the product of a recent gene flow between the Anatolian farmer-related population and the Caucasus/Iranian population, demonstrating that population admixture was at the core of the development of agriculture in the South Caucasus. By comparing Bronze Age individuals from the South Caucasus with Neolithic individuals from the same region, including Mentesh Tepe, we evidence that gene flows between Pontic Steppe populations and Mentesh Tepe-related groups contributed to ...

This significant pseudepigraphal work within Samaritan literature. This text, attributed to the prophet Moses, provides an alternative narrative to that found in the Hebrew Bible and other Jewish texts, reflecting the unique traditions and beliefs of the Samaritan community.
Historical Context
The Samaritans are an ethnoreligious group originating from the ancient Israelites. Their religious texts include the Samaritan Pentateuch, which closely resembles the first five books of the Hebrew Bible but with some notable differences. The Asatir is considered part of their broader religious literature and offers insights into the Samaritans' interpretation of biblical history and prophecy.
Content and Structure
The Asatir is written in Samaritan Hebrew and is composed of several sections that recount the history of the world from creation to the death of Moses. It includes prophecies, genealogies, and narratives that are distinct from or elaborate upon the canonical texts of Judaism and Christianity.
Key Themes
Prophecy and Esoteric Knowledge: The Asatir emphasizes the prophetic role of Moses and his possession of secret wisdom. It suggests that Moses was not only a lawgiver but also a mystic with deep esoteric knowledge.
Genealogies: The text includes detailed genealogies, tracing the lineage of key biblical figures and connecting them to the Samaritans.
Alternative Narratives: Stories in the Asatir often present alternative versions of biblical events, providing a unique perspective on well-known tales.

Moses Gaster's Contribution
Moses Gaster (1856-1939) was a renowned scholar of Samaritan and Jewish studies. His work on the Asatir was groundbreaking, as he provided the first comprehensive translation and commentary on the text. Gaster's introduction to the Asatir outlines its significance, historical context, and the challenges of translating Samaritan Hebrew. His notes and commentary offer valuable insights into the interpretation of the text and its place within Samaritan tradition.
Significance in Samaritan Tradition
The Asatir holds a special place in Samaritan religious literature. It is considered a source of secret knowledge, believed to contain the mystical teachings of Moses. The text underscores the Samaritans' view of themselves as the true keepers of the Mosaic tradition, distinct from Jewish interpretations.
Modern Scholarly Perspectives
Contemporary scholars view the Asatir as an essential text for understanding the diversity of ancient Israelite religion and the development of Samaritan identity. It provides a window into how the Samaritans preserved and interpreted their version of biblical history and prophecy.
The Hebrew says -
ואומר מושה לאלעזר זה סוד א-להים אשר נגלה לי בהר סיני כי אתה תקרא בפרשת יתרו וידעת כי לא כזה שמעו ישראל בשבעים פנים נגלה לי ואגדלך
English meaning
And Moses said to Eleazar, "This is the secret of God which was revealed to me on Mount Sinai. For you shall read in the portion of Yitro, and you shall know that Israel did not hear it this way. It was revealed to me in seventy faces, and I shall explain it to you."
Commentary by Moses Gaster: Moses' declaration to Eleazar underscores the esoteric nature of the teachings he received on Mount Sinai. The reference to "seventy faces" indicates the multiplicity of interpretations and the depth of divine wisdom imparted to Moses, suggesting a tradition of secret knowledge that is only partially revealed to the broader community.
Conclusion
The Asatir is a vital text for understanding the religious and cultural identity of the Samaritans. It offers a unique perspective on biblical history and prophecy, enriched by the esoteric traditions attributed to Moses. Moses Gaster's work in translating and interpreting the Asatir has made this significant text accessible to modern readers and scholars, highlighting its importance within the broader context of ancient Near Eastern literature and religious thought.

Character and Title of the Book, Detailed Contents,

Sibylline Oracles, Eupolemos and Other Hellenistic Writers, Abraham and Nimrod Legends, The Sibyl of Tibur and Other Oracles, The Cave of Treasures, Methodius of Patmos, The Asatir and Josephus, The Palestinian Targum, Bileam Legends and Antichrist, The Asatir and the Cycles of Universal Sagas, The Universal King, The Return of the Hero, The Child of Destiny, The Antichrist Legend, The Pseudepigraphic Literature, Enoch, Jubilees, Pseudo-Philo, Adam-Books, Characteristic Points of Difference, Astrology, Demonology, Eschatology, Mandaean Affinities, Language and Anti-Jewish Tendency, Asatir and the Samaritan Literature, Markah, Book of Joshua, Ab Hasda, El Doweik, Abdalla B. Shalma Meshalma, Chronology and Dates, Geographical and Other Names, Arabic Glosses, Samaritan Targum, Cryptograms, The Original Language, Date of the Asatir and Final Conclusion, The Manuscripts and Edition of the Asatir, The Arabic Paraphrase, The Pitron: or Arabic-Samaritan Commentary to the Asatir, Specimen of the Asatir Transliterated According to the Pronunciation of the Samaritans, Story of the Death of Moses, The Apocalypse of Moses and Josephus, Translations, Asatir, Pitron or Commentary to the Asatir, Samaritan Story of the Death of Moses, List of Abbreviations, Index, The Samaritan Texts, Chapter I. Division of Earth by Adam (v. 2), Sacrifice of Kain and Hebel on Mt. Garizim (v. 6), Killing of Hebel and the darkening of Kain's spirit (v. 9-13), Various dates (v. 24ff.), Adam separated from Eve 100 years (v. 26), Chapter II. Seth builds Antokia (v. 1), Genealogies and building of towns (v. 2), Twice twelve precious stones (v. 7), Lamech making images (v. 10), Sign of birth of Noah (v. 16), Adam foretells the Flood (v. 17), Children of Lamech and the towns built by them (v. 20), Afridan son of Tubal Kain taught by Adam (v. 35), Enoch buried near Mt. Ebal (v. 38), Sanctity of Mt. Garizim (v. 40), Noah studying Adam's Book of Signs (v. 44), Chapter III. Death of Adam in BadaiT(y. 1), Burial in cave (v. 4), Noah studies the Three Books (v. 9), Afadan builds Sion (Rock of Shame) (v. 13), Asur son of Attidan marries Gifna (v. 20), The worship of sun and moon in that place (v. 22), Mechanical contrivances (v. 26), Chapter IV. Flood (v. 2), Division of Earth (v. 13), The Three Books (v. 15), Death of Noah (v. 36), Chapter V. Tower of Babel (v. 1), First War of the Nations (v. 11), Nimrod (v. 12), Birth of Abraham (v. 14), Seclusion of Women (v. 20), Death of Haran (v. 28), Chapter VI. Death of Nimrod (v. 1), Two Nimrods (v. 2), Abraham going down to Egypt (v. 10), Fall of idols (v. 11), Punishment of Pharaoh (v. 14), Sorcerer Turts (v. 18), First proclamation of Faith (v. 23), Abraham rebuilding the first altar (v. 27), Chapter VII. Amraphel and Sodomites (v. 1), Turts going from Hebron to Shinear (v. 4), Last Kings of Ham (v. 7), Capture and rescue of Lot (v. 8), Advice to Kedar Laomer (v. 12), Dates of Abraham's movements (v. 13ff.), Abraham in pursuit (dates) (v. 14), Abraham in Salem with Melchizedek (v. 17), Various dates (v. 26), Chapter VIII. Reign of Ishmael (v. 1), Ishmael partner with Esau (v. 5), Kings of Edom (v. 7), Abraham and Jacere goingte Haran (v. 13), Genealogy of Phatea (v. 14), Pharaoh coming to Egypt (v. 21), Pltisthe eizard and his prophecy about Moses (v. 24), Metemram's greatness (v. 27), Plti Prophesies Moses' death water (v. 35), Chapter IX. Moses' birth (day and dates) (v. 1), Moses' rescue (v. 4), Killing of the Egyptian (v. 15), Flight to Midian (v. 14), God's appearance to Moses (v. 21), Dates from God's appearance to Moses to the Death of Aaron (v. 24ff.), Chapter X. Mertis (v. 1), Balak and Bileam (v. 2), Bileam's seven gods (v. 5-7), Bileam's curses frustrated (v. 13ff.), Bileam and the daughters of Moab (v. 18ff.), Stations of the tribes (v. 22ff.), Pinehas and Zimri, miracles (v. 30ff.), War against Midian (v. 41), Death of Bileam (v. 47), Chapter XI. Joshua appointed (v. 1), Death of Moses and his prophecy (v. 20), Chapter XII.i
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Cengiz Han'dan sonra Doğu Türkistan'dan Mâverâü'n-nehr topraklarına kadar uzanan Çağatay Devleti'nin dağılmasının ardından 1370 yılında Türkistan coğrafyasında tarih sahnesine çıkan Emîr Timur, hâkimiyetini genişletmek için pek çok sultan ve hükümdarla savaşmış, ticareti canlandırmış ve şehirleri imar etmiştir. En geniş sınırlarına kurucusu Emîr Timur zamanında ulaşan Timurlular Devleti (1370–1507), başta Mâverâü'nnehr olmak üzere Doğu Türkistan, Çin, Horasan, İran, Harezm, Azerbaycan, Irak, Suriye, Anadolu ve Karadeniz'in kuzeyine kadar uzanan çok geniş bir coğrafyada hâkimiyet kurmuştur. Bu bölgelerin hemen hepsinde ekonomik, sosyal, kültürel ve sanatsal bakımdan önemli izler bırakmıştır.

Various analogies can be drawn between architecture and literature. Thus,it is only natural if we assume that the spirit of a given age would be reflectedin the styles of both forms of art. John Ruskin said, `All architecture proposes aneffect on the human mind, not merely a service to the human frame\u27 (The SevenLamps of Architecture).The ruin of representation was mainly discussed in the context of literatureand paintings of the Romantic period. One of the reasons for this association wasWilliam Wordsworth\u27s famous poem `Tintern Abbey\u27, in which he expressed thefeeling of loss and beauty evoked by ruins. Wordsworth defined poetry as`emotion recollected in tranquility\u27 (Lyrical Ballads). As Ruskin aptly pointed out,`We may live without [architecture], and worship without her, but we cannot rememberwithout her.\u27 Architecture is closely related to memory, which is passeddown from generation to generation. In 1917, William Butler Yeats (1865_1939)purchased the 16th - cen...

An international research project of geophysical prospection was carried out at Wazigang, Qian County, Shaanxi Province. China, in September 1999 and 2000, a co-operation of the Bavarian State Conservation Off ice , the Department for Archaeological Prospection and Aerial Archaeology. Munich, and the Shaanxi Province Conservation Centre for Historical Monuments , Xi 'an. Involved in the ficldwork in China were the gcophysicists Dr. H. Becker and Dr. J. FaBbinder (Bavarian State Conservation Office) , Prof. Dr. Qin Jaoming, Dr. Jiang Baolian und Dr. Liang Xiaoqing (Technical Centre of the Shaanxi Province Conservation Centre for Historical Monuments), Prof. Ye Xinshi (Northwest Polytechnical University, Box 189. 710072 Xian) as well as the archaeologist Dr. W. Irlingcr and the cartographer J. Lichtcnauer from the Laboratory in Munich.

The past five years have witnessed a plethora of publications devoted to the Phoenicians and their impact on the Mediterranean world. Three recently published books are critiqued in this review. Two monographs, authored by Hélène Sader and Meir Edrey, examine the history, archaeology, and identity of the Iron Age inhabitants of Phoenicia. These publications are especially significant as they fill a void in Phoenician studies—a field that in the past tended to focus on Phoenician influence outside the Levantine homeland. The third book, by Carolina López-Ruiz, explores the impact of the Phoenicians on cultural  exchange and the spreading of their “orientalizing kit” westward, which transformed much of the Iron Age Mediterranean world during the eighth and seventh centuries BCE.

In 1996 archaeologists excavated over 70,000 inscribed pieces of wood from a well in Changsha, the largest such discovery ever made in China. They are local administrative records of the state of Wu in the 230s and provide remarkable detail on the society, governance, and economy of third century central China.
Although Wu was one of the famous Three Kingdoms, its administrative history was poorly known until these documents were found, so we have written this book to explain the context and content of these document to help researchers use these valuable texts to rewrite the history of South China.

Conference Theme:
Opening the Ancient World: Representations of the Past in Ancient & Modern Times

This interdisciplinary conference examines exploration, representation, and reception of pasts in the broadest cross-cultural, global, and atemporal world context. This conference employs the framework of interdisciplinary “Ancient Studies,” the study of the deep past of all societies, exploring the reception and representation of the past in present and ancient societies. Removing the privileging of our contemporary temporal position by intertwining current and past explorations of pasts treats this issue as a human cultural construction in all societies.

This free, public conference will be held on Sunday and Monday, July 21st to 22nd, 2024, and will be livestreamed on SASA’s website, social media channels, and on our partners’ platforms.

For the first time, we are proud to announce that the Opening the Ancient World Virtual Conference will support live interpretation for Spanish and Arabic thanks to a grant from the Wenner-Gren Foundation!

-- sãghāṛɔ ‘lathe’ rebus: sãgaḍ ‘double-canoe’ +  kamaṭamu  ’portable goldsmith furnace’ rebus: kammaṭa ‘mint, coiner, coinage’ of gold-copper company
Joined parts of device. G. sãghāṛɔ m. ʻ lathe ʼ; M. sãgaḍ f. ʻ a body formed of two or more fruits or animals or men &c. linked together, part of a turner's apparatus ʼ, m.f. ʻ float made of two canoes joined together ʼ (LM 417 compares saggarai at Limurike in the Periplus, Tam. śaṅgaḍam, Tu. jaṅgala ʻ double -- canoe ʼ)
Bottom part of device కమటము kamaṭamu  [Tel.] n. A portable furnace for melting the precious metals. అగసాలెవాని కుంపటి."చ.. కమటము కట్లెసంచియొరగల్లును గత్తెర సుత్తె చీర్ణముల్ ధమనియుస్రావణంబు మొలత్రాసును బట్టెడ నీరుకారు సా నము పటుకారు మూస బలునాణె పరీక్షల మచ్చులాదిగా నమరగభద్రకారక సమాహ్వయు డొక్కరుడుండు నప్పురిన్" హంస. ii. ' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint,coiner, coinage'.

The sub-layer Troy VIh presents a collapsed masonry that is compatible with destruction by earthquakes. There is an oral tradition about a natural disaster occurring during the same expedition from Mycenaean Thebes that placed Priam in the Throne. The Book of Apollodorus book 2, chapter 5, paragraph 9 records: "Apollo sent to Troy a disaster and Poseidon a sea monster which, carried up by a flood, snatched away the people of the plain." If we disregard the fantastic elements of this oral tradition that describes "Hercules killed the monster and saved princess Hesione", the account is clearly compatible with an Earthquake followed by a Tsunami just like the one attested in sub-layer Troy VIh.

shepsut and Thutmose III, took an active role on contemporary royal projects, as would be that he supervised and the responsibilities he assumed. Some of the roles that he exerted can be discerned in the royal monuments themselves, notably his involvement in the refurbishment and embellishment of a number of local temples in Middle Egypt, as well as the reckoning of the marvels from Punt that arrived in Thebes in year 9. Djehuty's engagement in these endeavours connects TT 11 with Hatshepsut's temples at Speos Artemidos and Deir el-Bahari, where private and royal spheres were brought together in the composition of monumental inscriptions and scenes.

The main concern of this research is the distribution of land carried out by Athens outside Attica during the fifth century BCE, which mostly favoured poor Athenians according to the perspective held in this article. The basic assumption is that most of the colonists and cleruchs came from the Athenian lower classes, which encompassed all the thetes and the bulk of the zeugitai, keeping in mind the Solonian census classes. It is argued that in the colonisation process, a hoplite farm model operated as a reference pattern for the Athenian state to distribute plots and/or collect rents in favour of its citizens. In order to sustain this, it is first defined the situation of the zeugitai and the thetes during the sixth and fifth centuries; secondly, it is presented some rough figures of the total male citizen population and of the number of Athenian hoplites, to imagine the possible number of citizens available to emigrate; thirdly, it is analysed three situations that show, in one way or another, the validity of the hoplite farm model for land allocations in Athenian settlements and the beneficiaries of this founding policy: the colony of Brea, the cleruchy on Lesbos, and the colony of Melos; finally, it is proposed some concluding remarks about the Athenian land distribution policy that favoured the lower classes.

It was in troubled periods in Egyptian history, for instance, when the traditional and/or accepted ways of transmission of power within royalty became contested or disrupted, that newcomers to the throne developed original means of legitimization of their authority. One such means consisted of innovative uses of the past and the invention of traditions that provided the much-needed link(s) between a prestigious ancestor (real or imaginary) and the ruler on the throne of Egypt. The First Intermediate Period and the following decades were particularly rich in such innovations. Theban kings "invented" an ancestor, Mentuhotep I, while their rivals who ruled at Heracleopolis Magna seem to have elaborated a royal pedigree toward the end of their dynasty, particularly during the reign of Merykare. In both cases, two obscure families of provincial leaders, lacking any remarkable record or achievement during the Old Kingdom, succeeded in accumulating power and becoming the ruling royal families of the Theban and Heracleopolitan kingdoms, respectively. A few centuries later, when Hatshepsut became pharaoh, she also retrieved and reinterpreted some particular deeds of the past in order to embellish and justify her royal condition. This was also a time when some provincial leaders (at Elkab and elsewhere) felt the need to assert their claims as legitimate local authorities when new institutions (royal temples, the army, an expanding class of scribes and officials) expanded and altered the balance of power between political actors that had prevailed until then. One of the tools they employed to achieve this goal was the remembrance of the deeds of their ancestors, the restoration of their tombs and the composition of genealogies that proved that they descended from old local noble families. Finally, new compositions were then inscribed in the tombs of some viziers. The so-called Duties of the Vizier describe in some detail the administrative procedures that viziers followed to get information, implement their orders and manage the country. However, it is curious to observe that the procedures referring to the administrative control of the countryside correspond, in fact, to those that had existed six centuries before, not at the time of their composition and inscription in tombs. It seems then as if Rekhmire and other high officials tried to justify the new administrative structure and tax system they were implementing in Egypt by referring to ideal older models formed by a mix of practices and functions taken from different periods. A particular recreation of the past was thus elaborated to confer prestige and authority to an administration under construction. In this light, comparing the role played by ancestors in the strategies of royals and nobles may illuminate the distinctive uses of the past made by ancient Egyptians.

Are Israel and Judah derived from a single ethnic and cultural group, or are they socio-politically and culturally distinct states? This study employs an onomastic approach to address this question, utilizing a digital onomasticon to analyze personal names from excavated epigraphic artifacts from Israel and Judah before Israel’s destruction. Quantitative analyses are conducted to compare the distribution of name types, theophoric elements, popular roots, various forms of hypocoristic names, and the use of patronyms.

The study reveals significant differences between Israelite and Judean names in theophoric elements, popular roots, and the use of patronyms, supporting the argument that Israel and Judah were distinct political and cultural entities. However, similarities were found in the distribution of name types and various forms of hypocoristic names. These similarities may indicate a connection between the two entities or their shared influences from neighboring cultures.

THE CHILARAI KOT SITE FALLS WITHIN THE ANDARAN-PHULBARI G.P. in the Tufanganj subdivision of the Cooch Behar district.  Cooch  Behar  district  belongs  to  Jalpaiguri
presidency in the state of West Bengal. The district is broadly surrounded by the districts of Jalpaiguri to the north and west and Alipurduar to the north. Bangladesh and Assam surround the region to the south and east. The Tista, the Jaldhaka, the Torsa, the Kaljani, the Raydak and Gadadhar are the main water channels of this district (Majumdar 1977).
Local tradition suggests that Chilarai was the younger brother of king Naranǎrǎyaṇa. His original name was Śukladhavaja, the chief general of the king. He was known for courage, heroism and guile. For his quick attack and sharp military wit, Śukladhavaja was given the title Chilarai. It is reported that he died of Chickenpox in 1571 Gaur invasion (Ahamad 1990). Legends also speak of death due to drowning in river water.

Literary and archaeological sources have preserved a rich history of Southern Europe and West Asia since the Bronze Age that can be complemented by genetics. Mycenaean period elites in Greece did not differ from the general population and included both people with some steppe ancestry and others, like the Griffin Warrior, without it. Similarly, people in the central area of the Urartian Kingdom around Lake Van lacked the steppe ancestry characteristic of the kingdom’s northern provinces. Anatolia exhibited extraordinary continuity down to the Roman and Byzantine periods, with its people serving as the demographic core of much of the Roman Empire, including the city of Rome itself. During medieval times, migrations associated with Slavic and Turkic speakers profoundly affected the region.

This paper focuses on how the human body, and the dead body in particular, was used to create social categories and identities in prehistoric Cyprus. Specifically, it explores how a particular condition, such as death, was integrated into social processes, and how the treatment of dead bodies both created and reinforced social categories and identities. The material the paper focuses on is the mortuary evidence from Chalcolithic Cyprus (3800–2300 BC). In particular, it argues that the extensive, intentional manipulation of dead bodies and human remains visible in Cypriot Chalcolithic cemeteries was aimed at integrating the individual to communal, collective wholes on the occasion of death and during the time period that followed.

2 In-depth Articles
About the Neolithic Era
THE NEOLITHIC MINDSET
A New Concept Of Time
A New Relation To The Natural Environment
------- AND -------
MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT THE NEOLITHIC ERA
Incorrect Assumptions And Modern Biases Have Prevented A Full Understanding Of The Neolithic Era
by Rick Doble